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Nathan Myhrvold

Nathan Myhrvold
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Image by Sifu Renka
Below, the full interview with Dr. Nathan Myhrvold (from Nov 21, 2011):

Unless you’ve been hiding under some kind of rock, you’ve probably heard of Modernist Cuisine: The Art and Science of Cooking, the stunning six-volume, 2,400-page, 50-pound*, 5 cookery book that came out early this year. Nathan Myhrvold, whose team of 30 spent three-and-a-half years** in a 20,000 square foot lab (complete with a high speed camera and a machine shop) effective on the tome, was in town this week to speak to about 250 food and science nerds at an event hosted by The Cookery book Store at the Isabel Bader Theatre. A staggering polymath, Myhrvold had already bought a pair of master’s (economics and geophysics) and a Princeton Ph.D. (theoretical and mathematical physics) by age 23, before effective with Stephen Hawking at Cambridge, land the Chief Technology Officer job at Microsoft, running a patent empire called Intellectual Ventures and dabbling in photography, paleontology and, of course, cutting-edge food. We sat with Myhrvold over breakfast to talk about the surprising success of Modernist Cuisine and what the future holds for the project.

RS: Some say that the Modernist Cuisine is the cookery book of all cookbooks. Others say it’s like an encyclopedia. Then there are those that look at it as a coffee table book because it’s so visually appealing.

NM: If you’ve got a small apartment, you can use it as the coffee table! [Laughs]

RS: How would you classify the set?

NM: The book was designed to be all those things – everyone can take from it what they want. If you go into a kitchen store, there’s tones of fancy knifes, copper pots, and those things that people buy – some use them as professional tools; some people use them as a status symbol, haha; some people like food and all aspects of it. The book has all the capabilities of those things.
Most people are passionate and curious about cooking, regardless of who you are, then the pictures or the information may be enough. I say passionate and curious because if you are more practical in your goal – a journalist in the UK had said “the top selling cookery book in the UK is Jaime Oliver’s 30 minute meals” – that’s very different. It’s a fine book, but if all you want is to cook a meal in 30 minutes, then go buy his book or a hundred other books like that. That’s a very mission oriented view of cooking. If you’re on a mission, then people already benefit that, but my book is about satisfying passion and curiosity in a broad way. It’s not about 30 minute meals… there are things in the book that can be used for 30 minute meals and if you wanted a 30 minute meal comparison between Jaime Oliver and our book, we’d be lucky to rise to the occasion. But there are also recipes in the book that take a hundred hours [laughs].
If you’re task oriented (what’s the quickest way to cook a 30 minute meal), then I say, buy his book. But if you’re curious how things work, then that’s a different thing.
In terms of whether you need other cook books? Well I have other cookbooks.
This book is designed to be based on 21st century cuisine. It is a broad survey of how traditional cooking methods really work. So we take (not every single method but) all the principal methods of Western cooking, and many principal methods of Asian or other styled cooking, in the context of 21st century cuisine. Every modern technique we can find. We’re not saying that traditional techniques go away; there’s just no reason to reprint them, lots of other people have done so. Most cases there is an improvement. That was our primer – to be the basic foundation for 21st century cuisine but only in the context of everything else that has happened.

RS: What was the inspiration and motivation behind the massive project?

NM: The book is so different from traditional cookbooks, if you can get by its cost, one thing that cookbooks are about is that it’s simplified. Question any chef who’s written a cookery book, the cookery book editors are sort of unrelenting about making in laymen’s term. People question if they can do every recipe at home, and I say no. I don’t know why that’s a excellent goal, at least in my mind, for this book because we’re trying to clarify how cooking works. It’s the essential question: would you like to hear the real tale or would you like to hear the dumbed-down tale?
There are a lot of people who want to know the real tale. The fact is that 25% of the recipes in the book – forget about it – you’re not going to do it. To read about them and learn about them at the same time as other chefs do. Another one of the goals of our book is that everyone who reads it will learn something, even if you’re Ferran Adria or Heston Blumenthal or the best chef in the world – someone’s going to learn something they never knew before.
I reckon it’s kind of cool, if Thomas Keller learns something from the book and you learn it the same time that he is. It flies in the face of the thought that everything has to be dumbed-down because it’s so different than conventional wisdom. Today I get a lot of journalists saying that this is really for the professional cook – that’s a paternalistic view. It’s not for everybody. If you look online you’ll find thousands of people who are not professions but are cooking from it, sharing their experiences on a blog… any market is not uniform. It’s fascinating and complicated.
Another inspiration for the book was the sous vide thread on eGullet that started in 2004 and a lot of people checked in from all walks of life. One of the guys, Bryan Zupon was a Junior at Duke University and he was cooking sous vide in his dorm room, in part because he figured out it was a sort of loop hole that they didn’t allow hot plates but you could use a water bath. This is the spirit of all these people sharing on eGullet.

RS: Given the somewhat niche appeal of the subject, the fact that it’s life reprinted a following time, has the reception for the cookery book bowled over you?

NM: There’s two ways you can design a product, broadly speaking: you can go do market research. Most huge companies do that – they do focus groups and surveys. It’s probably the way most products are designed and tested. That’s not what we did. The other way you can come up with a design is if you do what you want, and God I hope someone will buy it. That’s the way art is made and fantastic restaurants are made. Appealing to committees and asking people what they want gives you a limited view of things. Having your own thought, like novels that are successful or non-fiction journalism, are pursued by people who have their own thought. So that’s what we did. We had this thought.
Once we had it done and we could show [publishers] what we had done, then it was more concrete vs. “I’m going to cut cans in half, take pictures… they’ll question what well-known photographer are you using? Oh I’m going to do it myself and a guy I found on Craigslist.” I’ll just sound like a creepy person. But after we had it [done], a couple publishers were very interested… but one wanted to photograph 2000 [copies]. I was like we’re done. It might be a smart number to photograph, but I was so deep into it that I couldn’t just sell 2000 copies worldwide. That’s just too small. Of course, so far we’ve sold 25,000 and in suspense for 30,000 this year, and that’s just in English. There’s still French, German and Spanish. Over time, we hope to sell really a lot… because you want impact. People cook to have other people eat it. If you hire the best chef in Toronto, say “we’re going to give you double your salary but as soon as you end every one of your dishes we’re going to place it down the garbage disposal,” they wouldn’t want to do it. It wouldn’t be fun. So we wrote these books to have impact. So we hope that people would buy it. Some are going to say “why is it so expensive? Why couldn’t we use shitty paper?” We were making a quality product. Quality really matters. There’s fantastic rustic, peasant style food all over the world, but there’s also something wonderful about food that’s been refined and elevated. For the same reason it’s wonderful that the world has a Per Se or French Laundry or a Stout Duck. We plotting, we should have a really quality book. We’re not going to skimp on the paper and printing – the cost difference was really small – maybe you’d save , but so what? It’s not a lot.
If you bought the same number of pounds of cookbooks, if you tried to replicate the same content for traditional cooking, you’d buy more than 0. It would cost you much more money than my book. And it wouldn’t be as cohesive because this was done by one team. We had no thought if it would work, but it seems like it has.

RS: So would you say that real potential can’t be realized until you try, and that you can’t let limitations restrict yourself?

NM: That’s one of the main reasons I did the book. I realized that this could be my contribution to cooking. Maybe in a parallel universe, I became a chef instead of effective in Microsoft, going into physics and all the other things I did. If I started a restaurant at this the boards in my life – for Seattle to have one more fantastic restaurant, that would be nice – but it wouldn’t have the impact on people. I’d have more impact in i.e. Toronto with this book than if I say had a restaurant in Seattle. I’m not complaining about restaurants, but the ability for someone to find investors, to find space, to make a restaurant, although it’s hard, people can do that. But a cookery book like this that has all the properties it has and covers all the techniques… who’s going to do that? Huge publishing companies are incredibly conservative. Maybe they’re right to be conservative, but in this case, I like food and I like this kind of food, I knew how hard it was to learn this kind of cooking because I was learning it myself and it required lots of research, asking chefs around the world, a lot of experimentation… if I could pull all of this together to make a definitive book, coalesce all the information in one place, it would be hugely valuable. For the chef who would never get a the boards at El Bulli or The Stout Duck a huge opportunity. That’s what I hope to be my contribution to food.

RS: Do you find any of the chefs resisting this because now you’ve clarified how to do many of these once mysterious techniques?

NM: In general I’ve found most of the Modernist chefs are incredibly helpful. If you question Ferran [Adria] how to do something, he’ll tell you, but he doesn’t have to clarify to everyone what he’s doing. And even in his wonderful cookery book, he didn’t have the page count to go into tutorials. Some of the chefs don’t have the patience, because doing all those step by step things; they’re on to the next cool thing. That’s honest enough, that’s what they’re supposed to do. If you went to a fantastic fashion designer and questioned them, lecture me how to sew [laughs]… It’s wasn’t a question of people hording thoughts (maybe there’s a few people who do hoard thoughts but that wasn’t the huge phenomenon).

RS: Could it be that this is part of the culture of this movement/cuisine/technique? Where in the past with more traditional methods much of those techniques are guarded or protected vs. now it’s all about sharing knowledge to help advance things?

NM: Cooking still has an fascinating structure. The medieval guilds were all about apprenticeships; you learned by turning at 13-year ancient to a master who treated him a small better than a slave and then they grew until they became the master, where upon they started abusing apprentices. That was the way most professions were. There are professional chef schools, but many of the greatest chefs are self taught which is fine; there’s still a whole thought of apprentices effective their way up which is fantastic so long as there’s a particular quantity of mutual information.
There’s a lot more than gimmicks and tricks; there’s a essential basis to the way you do things. Now that we know a way to describe modern cooking, it’s grateful what things you’re trying to achieve with the food and then know how to get them. Traditional techniques are sentimental and contradictory. Take roast chicken: crispy skin, moist flesh. Traditional cooking typically tries to make a compromise. Sentimental philosophy of Modernist cuisine is that you cook the inside one way and the outside another way. It’s all about the thought of control – another huge thought in Modernist cuisine – you can be in control. The thought that it’s all mystical, that it requires vast amounts of human cleverness

RS: In effective on the MC , what was the largest myth you debunked?

NM: We found a bunch of errors in food safety – there’s a whole chapter on that. One example is eggs cooked to order should be brought to 145-degrees for 1-following. That does nothing. It’s sort of a cosmetic regulation. There’s a regulation for fish: 145-degrees for 1-following which overcooks the fish. If they said 145-degrees for 12-minutes, it would have some sense to it, but for 1-following it earnings nothing.
Duck confit is one that some chefs say, if you cook duck in stout, it will make this unique flavour. That’s a fraud. I figured that out because I was trying to know how the stout can really penetrate into the meat because stout molecules are large and they won’t go through the membrane. Firstly, what people call stout is really fatty tissue. Most of what people object to is that it’s rubbery – that’s the collagen matrix that holds the stout; you have to render it to get the stout. Duck stout melts at 14-degrees Centigrade, so how come you have to cook it so hard? It’s not the stout; it’s that the lipids are enclosed in collagen and the collagen needs to be broken down because the lipids are trapped. It’s that collagen that gives rubbery duck skin. I realized the stout couldn’t maybe penetrate the meat so how does it make a unique flavour and texture? And the confit scenery of the meat isn’t just at the surface, it goes all the way in. So it had to be a fraud.
We did a taste test, and we either cooked it traditional, sous vide or steamed it. As long as the time and warmth are the same, in a blind taste test, we couldn’t tell the difference. When I tell some chefs this, they nearly get mad and don’t agree with it. But I say look, it’s not about agreeing, try it. If you can try in a blind taste test, maybe you can taste things I can’t taste, but no one in our group could taste it.
One of the essences of science is to know this thought that hypotheses can be disproven. And chefs have to know that there are a lot hypotheses that people take for granted. Some of its right but a lot isn’t.

RS: What’s your next cookery book project?

NM: Well in terms of a project that’s a small smaller than a giant multi-year, multi-volume extravaganza over again. We did one of those, and I’m sure I’ll do another one over again at some point, but the books that will come next will be a smaller thing – single topic book. And I can see a list of many single topic books. Imagine if I was doing another volume to Modernist Cuisine? It is a lot of ways to make that next volume by taking a specific topic. But I would also like to see the quiche and desserts so hopefully. One thing that was special about Modernist Cuisine is that we did take this topic approach and we didn’t have any compromises, we wanted to cover everything out there. So we have to find areas that are worthy of our attention; approach different ethnic cuisines or a technique in more specialized form. So there’s a lot of different ways that you could slice it. So we’ll see what happens.

RS: One thing I’ve found fascinating is that chefs who have been reticent to use the mark “molecular cookery” are now suddenly lucky to talk about “modern cuisine.” Thoughts?

NM: Well molecular cookery is a terrible name. We discuss the history of it in the book. Chefs despise it. The ironic thing is that Hervé This, who’s this French food scientist – he would tell you he’s the member of the clergy of molecular cookery – he feels fervently that that term shouldn’t be used to describe restaurant cuisine, but used for science.

RS: I believe he now refers to it as Note by Note?

NM: The latest thing he’s excited about is called Note by Note cuisine, which I’m not sure I fully know. It seems to be like if you start using a slang term… it’s possible to be widely used because not anyone knows correctly what it earnings because they use it in context. I haven’t seen any precise definition of it. Is seems to be about isolating specific characteristics of ingredients and then having a sequence of these things in a menu which is analogous to playing notes of music. That’s my interpretation from the small I’ve seen, and Max, my co-author who reads French better than I do, said that seems to be kind of what he does.
Anyway, Hervé doesn’t want to call it molecular cookery; the chefs don’t want to call it molecular cookery. Molecular sounds very off-putting to people. If you take a scientific perspective of course everything is molecules and it’s not molecular biology. If there’s a reason to call it molecular biology – because that’s the study of unique molecules of life – and it’s molecules that that you’re concerned with, and there’s no sense that that’s right here. Historically molecular cookery was invented as a cool name for a conference. Hervé recently sent an email out to people that he was tickled that this cuisine was life called modernist. Heston Blumenthal wrote a piece saying the same thing: that as far as he’s concerned, molecular is dead, it’s now modernist. I reckon modernist has a significant improvement over molecular: first, it’s more encompassing and broader. So what we mean by modern is that people cooking a wide range of styles, it’s not a single style. It includes people who cook foods that are deliberately different; the differentness is part of the point. If you go to Alinea, Moto or El Bulli part of the entire creative point is for it to be new and surprising. Just like artists that do that. There are people who use surprise as part of the experience. There are also a lot of chefs that don’t cook that way but modern techniques are still part of their cuisine. Modern art encompasses a wide range of different artistic styles. Modern art includes Jackson Pollock, the French Impressionists, Chuck Close doing photorealism and everything in between. In the same way modernist is a term for cooking, or a style of cuisine that is meant to be all encompassing.

RS: Do you eat out or cook more?

NM: Well it’s different. For starters, Seattle there are a lot of fantastic restaurants, but there’s not a lot of fantastic modernist restaurants. So when I travel, I like trying to experience other things that I don’t get at home. So fantastic restaurants, ethnic restaurants and other takes on food are also nice to try. So when it’s places like Chicago, it’s places like Alinea, Moto and places like that but also Hot Doug’s and the French fries in duck stout are fantastic. Ha ha ha.

RS: Have you tried horse stout fries? (Not there. I had to make it myself – it was terrible with having to render down the stout itself that had to be sourced, but…)

NM: Use a pressure cooker.

RS: Now I know.

NM: It’s fantastic. What we do with rendering stout is use a pressure cooker and to use Mason jars to hold the stout with an inch of water under.

RS: What is your favourite cuisine? Restaurant? Do you find that having demystified the cooking process through the MC that you are less easily impressed?

NM: It’s not hard to go out to eat. The amusing thing is that knowing how I would do it doesn’t mean I know how they would do it. There’s a tendency to over reckon things “oh yes, they must have done this and this and this and this cuz that’s how I’d do it.” But no really.
In terms of harder to be impressed. You know those optical illusions? The lines… I don’t know if you know the trick? One of the lines looks longer? You can say we know, but the perception is very hard wired. The food is fantastic, tastes fantastic and it doesn’t really matter knowing how it’s made – it doesn’t affect how you experience it. Once you’ve had lots of fantastic food and you know what it can taste like if it’s no overcooked you become more picky about how it’s overcooked – which is also pretty simple to forgive in a particular context. But it’s about life more aware.

RS: Comments on your dining experiences in Toronto?

NM: When I’m in a different city, I would eat with a local guide because usually when you come to a city, there’s a set of places that the concierge will tell you is the best restaurant in town. There are places that a guide like Zagat will tell you, then there’s a place that a foodie will take you. There is some overlap but not very much.
In Singapore there’s something called makansutra. The name is a sort of take on kamasutra: makan earnings eating (??) in a local language. And this crazy guy writes all about street food, a guy named Seto, and when I’m in Singapore, he takes me around. You go to like 30 places and at each one you order only one dish. It’s things from all across south east Asia and all the things that are unique there. So if there’s a Seto in every town, that would fantastic, but of course there isn’t.
Unfortunately didn’t have much of a chance [to explore Toronto]. I did have pre-arranged dinners at Splendido and Campagnolo, which was fine, but I ate at one Indian restaurant while I was here called Utsav. We questioned one of the concierges, who’s an Indian woman, where to go for lunch. It was very excellent really. Typical Indian dishes but we also didn’t want to walk. It was excellent. I like all food basically.
But sure, I’d like to come back to Toronto and explore a bit.

RS: You have such varied interests that take up your time. How much of it do you use to focus on food and MC?

NM: I’m interested in a lot of things. I try to do it to the best of my abilities.
In the case of paleontology, I write a number of articles on paleontology. Every few years I do one, it’s not very constant. And my contribution to paleontology is smaller, it’s a contribution but it’s not “Oh my god, I’m the world’s best paleontologist.” But it’s fun. And I’m going to keep doing it. My company – development and also inventing – and one of the things we try is to try to invent things that are solutions to problems. We might fail. We have a philosophy that it’s excellent for us to try to do those things. Over again, you can tell me that the world doesn’t work or we shouldn’t be doing it that way.
The cookery book has been fascinating because cooking has been something that, up until now, if you interviewed me about all my other things “oh yes, he’s also a really excellent cook, he once won a barbecue contest…” people would be like oh that’s an fascinating small leisure activity. It’s not like it is a contribution that was vital towards cooking, I mean, up until the book. The book was trying to be something that was very vital. My relative contribution to cooking may well exceed my relative contribution to paleontology, whatever that earnings.

RS: They’re all significant contributions, but given all that you’ve accomplished and projects you’ve lined up for the future, what is it that you hope will be your legacy?

NM: Warren Buffet was questioned when he was gone what he said was: god that guy was ancient. [laughs] So the legacy, I’m not at the the boards in my life where I can worry about that. I’m in suspense that I have a lot more years walking out of here [laughs].
It’s a amusing question, because in paleontology, my paleontology friends will say “he done a few fascinating things” and I’ll have some small legacy in paleontology but currently it will be small; maybe I’ll come up with something larger later on. In physics and in other interests of mine, in those areas, yes in some of them, if you interviewed them after I was gone they’d say: “too terrible he wasted his time in all that other stuff. Maybe he would be a successful guy if he didn’t waste all his time on all this other crap.” It’s amusing because my friends in each area don’t quite know why I would waste my time from their perspective. Lots of chef friends can’t quite know why I don’t open a restaurant, because to them that is the best thing you can maybe do. So what’s up with that? They say “surely this book is how you were going to introduce your new restaurant.” Well, not so much. So within cooking I’m in suspense the book has an impact. People write to be read; people cook to be eaten. So I really hope the book has a huge impact. If it has a huge impact, it would help a whole generation of cooks – at home and professionally – will help them get access to techniques that they couldn’t get otherwise. If you interview me 10 years from now, we’ll be able to say, “here’s the restaurants and the trends that have been influenced from the creation of this book.” I hope that there’ll be other books by that date, that I won’t be really done, but if I was done today, I would hope that this book will be a excellent contribution, that people would have found it really useful. That’s as much as you could hope for.

RS: Thank you for sharing about the whole process of this project. It’s exciting to see the final product but I can’t imagine how hard those 5 years were when you were effective through the trials and tribulations.

NM: There was a lot of work. There are things that don’t go how you’d like; there are those things that turn out really well. It was a fantastic project. It’s terrific to see it now really accepted by people.

RS: Are you thinking of any more translations of MC?

NM: Two languages: Chinese and Russian. If you look at what countries will hold the most high end restaurants – Canada is not going to quadruple its high end restaurants, you couldn’t. The number of high end restaurants will remain relatively constant (maybe they’ll grow at a few percent per year, but the populace is flat and it’s already wealthy/successful country. The same is right for the United States or Europe. China, will have more high end restaurants – like how the United States went from in the 19th century it went from an agricultural country and the wild west and everything else into this urbanized industrial country – and that’s what’s happening in China. If you want to be influential… Plus China has this fascinating combination of [having] rich culinary traditions of its own and everybody likes diversity. So there will be more French restaurants developing , more sushi… If you lived in Shanghai or Beijing today, or Hong Kong – Hong Kong’s had a western economy for a while – so it’s got fantastic restaurants of every diversity. They’re really selling the books in English in China through our printer. For the very rich people in China it doesn’t matter the books are in English. It’s also not a huge influence on the culinary world. The challenge there is finding a way to get it translated in a cost effective way. If you told me that when we translate it to Chinese and I’ll never make any money on it, I’d still do it just because it’ll be a cool thing to do. It really has many of the same properties that I said about China: it’s another unique situation where they’re growing more of a restaurant culture and growing more of an open society. Spanish is fantastic, because not only do you get Spain but you get all of Latin America. So if you look at parts of the world that are more influential, the parts of the world that are developing are only part of the tale. If you look back 20 or 30 years from now, it’s the parts of the world that are growing quick, they will go from having no culinary traditions to high end cuisine – that’s where you’ll have the most influence.

RS: And can we use the metaphor that “they’re really hungry for it” appropriately here?

NM: [Laughs]

RS: Thank you so much for your time.

* Random fact: Although both editions are in black and white on high quality paper, edition one used paper from Japan and weighed a mere 48-pounds. But, in wake of the tsunami earlier this year, the paper was no longer available and an equally high quality fund, but slightly heavier product, from China was used. The ink alone weighs 4-pounds.
** Mhyrvold worked on the project for two years alone before having a team.

Fundamentals Of Your Feminine Voice

Fundamentals Of Your Feminine Voice
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Change.gov using Google Moderator

Change.gov using Google Moderator
google results per page

Image by planspark
Via TPM Election Central: tpmelectioncentral.talkingpointsmemo.com/2008/12/obama_te…

Note: Things are changing quick even as you’re browsing from page to page, so the numbers below are likely never 100% accurate.

As of a few minutes ago, the top 30 questions accounted for 10.5% of all 119,230 votes (somehow the table below is gone one line).

Still early, but might look like we’re observing the same pattern we saw earlier where a voting system ideal those entries that had been submitted early and attracted an early lead in votes.

Also, at a guestimated 15 words per question (and a reading speed of 250 words per minute), it would take about 100 minutes to consume all 1,606 questions. Not as terrible as what we saw here, but still quite a challenge once we hit several thousand questions.

No. / Votes / Running total / Percent of total
1 / 1128 / 1128 / 0.9%
2 / 938 / 2066 / 1.7%
3 / 743 / 2809 / 2.4%
4 / 679 / 3488 / 2.9%
5 / 647 / 4135 / 3.5%
6 / 646 / 4781 / 4.0%
7 / 580 / 5361 / 4.5%
8 / 543 / 5904 / 5.0%
9 / 495 / 6399 / 5.4%
10 / 400 / 6799 / 5.7%
11 / 369 / 7168 / 6.0%
12 / 390 / 7558 / 6.3%
13 / 357 / 7915 / 6.6%
14 / 351 / 8266 / 6.9%
15 / 322 / 8588 / 7.2%
16 / 314 / 8902 / 7.5%
17 / 326 / 9228 / 7.7%
18 / 325 / 9553 / 8.0%
19 / 311 / 9864 / 8.3%
20 / 312 / 10176 / 8.5%
21 / 286 / 10462 / 8.8%
22 / 275 / 10737 / 9.0%
23 / 275 / 11012 / 9.2%
24 / 265 / 11277 / 9.5%
25 / 271 / 11548 / 9.7%
26 / 247 / 11795 / 9.9%
27 / 230 / 12025 / 10.1%
28 / 235 / 12260 / 10.3%
29 / 209 / 12469 / 10.5%

For future reference, the current list of top 30 questions:

1 / "What will you do to establish transparency and safeguards against waste with the rest of the Wall Street bailout money?"
2 / "What will you do as President to restore the Constitutional protections that have been subverted by the Bush Administration and how will you ensure that our system of checks and balances is renewed?"
3 / "Will you lift the ban on Stem Cell research in your first 100 days in office?"
4 / "What will you do first to reduce pollution/waste and incentivize greener behavior across the country?"
5 / "Will you appoint a Special Prosecutor – ideally Patrick Fitzgerald – to independently investigate the gravest crimes of the Bush Administration, including torture and warrantless wiretapping?"
6 / "What will you do to end the use of mercenary forces (ie Blackwater) by our military?"
7 / "What do you plot to do to our food industry to make it more sustainable? Will there be changes to our emergent policies?"
8 / "What will you do to promote science and mathematics education to Elementary and Middle School students?"
9 / "How long will it take for you to implement your healthcare plot to assure those who do not have any insurance at all?"
10 / "What will be done to make the banking industry accountable when there are so many substantiated tales about their mismangement in relationship to selling bank owned properties and managing potential foreclosures?"
11 / "Solar energy is in use throughout the world on an individual household basis for water and facility heating, as well as electricity generation. Will your admin. attempt to utilize the millions of acres available for solar energy collection?"
12 / "What will be done about the FDA and its cozy relationship with the Pharmaceutical industry? Will the protective legislation for the Pharm be reversed? Will the FDA pre-emption plot protecting the Pharm from liability be addressed?"
13 / "Will you introduce legislation to enable refinancing of older student loans with high interest rates (8.5% and more) into the lower rates currently available? You can refinance any other kind of loan except student loans and that’s not honest."
14 / "Our agricultural plot, formed by Pres. Nixon, has resulted in our life both overfed and undernourished. Will you appoint a Secretary of Agriculture who understands that we have been operating using unsustainable/unhealthy emergent practices?"
15 / "Will you increase tax incentives or refunds to individuals for installing energy efficient products in their homes – such as solar water and electric, wind energy, electric/hybrid cars, etc?"
16 / "Given the energy challenges we’re facing, what are your plans to increase public transportation in this country, and to encourage ridership?"
17 / "What legislation will you introduce to preserve Net Neutrality and stop the telecom industry from eviscerating the greatest communication medium of all time?"
18 / "You do not support gay marriage, but you do support civil unions. How and when will all american gay and lesbian citizens will be granted the more than 1,000 rights and responsibilities as married couples?"
19 / "What is your view on a unitary executive branch? Will you work to restore checks and balances to the office of the President and Vice-President?"
20 / "How will you deal with members of the Bush administration for things like warrant-less wiretapping, approving the use of torture, and the abuse of executive power?"
21 / "Is there a way to provide *healthcare for everyone* without educational only insurance companies the way as long as "insurance for everyone" does? This would help stimulate a larger part of the economy than just educational a few insurance corporations."
22 / "Why are we rebuilding our national highway system instead of building high-speed passenger rail and revitalizing our cities and towns through the development of mass transit? Is this not key to our long-term economic and environmental well life?"
23 / "There has been a lot of talk about rebuilding infrastructure. How much consideration is life given to building a high speed rail system, like those in Europe?"
24 / "Executive Order 13233 from President Bush nullifies the lawful release of presidential records. What will you do to keep the Bush/Cheney administration from exploiting this to keep their secrets safe, contrary to national security?"
25 / "The Bush administration has rationalized some vile acts (torture, wiretapping) with questionable officially authorized opinions written by the OLC and the DoJ. How will you close the loophole that implies any act is lawful if it’s tolerable by such a officially authorized attitude?"
26 / "How cangovernment incentivize people and corporations to support sustainable energy and reduced petroleum dependency at a scale to impact global warming adequately? We need more than slogans. This change has significant impact and real costs."
27 / "Will you commit to unequivocally ending torture by US intelligence and military organizations, and will you support legislation to categorically prohibit this practice in the future?"
28 / "Will you consider a Doctors For America, sort of like a Lecture For America, program as part of your health care reform? It would be a way to pay for students to become GP (we need more) as well as as long as health care to poor Americans."
29 / "In developing a power grid for the 21st century, will you require utility companies to make whatever changes are necessary to allow individual homeowners to install solar panels and sell excess power back to the utility companies?"
30 / "Will you ban companies from using bailout money for lobbying?"

Synthetic and artificial fiber

Synthetic and artificial fiber
words per page novel

Image by Joost J. Bakker IJmuiden
Synthetic and artificial fiber

Synthetic fibers are the result of extensive research by scientists to increase on naturally occurring animal and plant fibers. In general, synthetic fibers are made by forcing, usually through extrusion, fiber forming materials through holes (called spinnerets) into the air, forming a thread. Before synthetic fibers were developed, artificially manufactured fibers were made from cellulose, which comes from plants. These fibers are called cellulose fibers.

Synthetic fibers account for about half of all fiber usage, with applications in every field of fiber and material technology. Although many classes of fiber based on synthetic polymers have been evaluated as potentially valuable commercial products, four of them – nylon, polyester, acrylic and polyolefin – dominate the market. These four account for approximately 98 per cent by volume of synthetic fiber production, with polyester alone accounting for around 60 per cent.

HistoryThe first artificial fiber, renowned as artificial silk, became renowned as viscose around 1894, and finally rayon in 1924. A similar product renowned as cellulose acetate was learned in 1865. Rayon and acetate are both artificial fibers, but not truly synthetic, life made from wood. Although these artificial fibers were learned in the mid-nineteenth century, successful modern manufacture started much later (see the dates below).

Nylon, the first synthetic fiber, made its debut in the United States as a replacement for silk, just in time for World War II rationing. Its novel use as a material for women’s stockings overshadowed more practical uses, such as a replacement for the silk in parachutes and other military uses.

Common synthetic fibers include:

Rayon (1910) (artificial, not synthetic)
Acetate (1924) (artificial, not synthetic)
Nylon (1939)
Modacrylic (1949)
Olefin (1949)
Acrylic (1950)

Rayon
Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. Because it is bent from naturally occurring polymers, it is neither a truly synthetic fiber nor a natural fiber; it is a semi-synthetic or artificial fiber. Rayon is renowned by the names viscose rayon and art silk in the material industry. It usually has a high sheen quality giving it a bright sheen.

Uses

Some major rayon fiber uses include apparel (e.g. blouses, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings, scarves, suits, neckties, hats, socks), the filling in Zippo lighters, furnishings (e.g. bedspreads, bedsheets, blankets, window treatments, upholstery, slipcovers), industrial uses (e.g. medical surgery products, non-woven products, tire cord), and other uses (e.g. yarn, feminine cleanliness products, diapers, towels). Rayon is a major feedstock in the production of carbon fiber.

In early 2010, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission warned several retailers that six major manufacturers were falsely labeling rayon products as "bamboo", in order to appeal to environmentally conscious consumers. While rayon may be bent with bamboo as a raw material, and the two may be used for similar fabrics (though natural bamboo is not as smooth), rayon is so far removed from bamboo by chemical processing that the two are entirely separate.

History

NitrocelluloseThe fact that nitrocellulose is soluble in organic solvents such as ether and acetone, made it possible for Georges Audemars to develop the first "artificial silk" about 1855, but his method was impractical for commercial use. Commercial production started in 1891, but the result was flammable, and more expensive than acetate or cuprammonium rayon. Because of this, production was stopped before World War I, for example in 1912 in Germany. Briefly, it became renowned as "mother-in-law silk."

Nathan Rosenstein invented the spunize process by which he turned rayon from a hard fiber to a fabric. This allowed rayon to become a well loved raw material in textiles.

Acetate method

Paul Schützenberger learned that cellulose can be reacted with acetic anhydride to form cellulose acetate. The triacetate is only[citation needed] soluble in chloroform making the method expensive. The discovery that hydrolyzed cellulose acetate is soluble in more polar solvents, like acetone, made production of cellulose acetate fibers cheap and efficient.

Cuprammonium method

The German chemist Eduard Schweizer learned that tetraaminecopper dihydroxide could dissolve cellulose. Max Fremery and Johann Urban developed a method to produce carbon fibers for use in light bulbs in 1897. Production of rayon for textiles started in 1899 in the Vereinigte Glanzstofffabriken AG in Oberbruch. Improvement[citation needed] by the J.P. Bemberg AG in 1904 made the artificial silk a product comparable to real silk.

Viscose method

Finally, in 1894, English chemist Charles Frederick Cross, and his collaborators Edward John Bevan, and Clayton Beadle patented their artificial silk, which they named "viscose", because the reaction product of carbon disulfide and cellulose in basic conditions gave a highly viscous solution of xanthate. The first commercial viscose rayon was bent by the UK company Courtaulds Fibers in 1905. Avtex Fibers Incorporated started selling their formulation in the United States in 1910. The name "rayon" was adopted in 1924, with "viscose" life used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane. In Europe, though, the fabric itself became renowned as "viscose," which has been ruled an acceptable alternative term for rayon by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission. The method is able to use wood (cellulose and lignin) as a fund of cellulose while the other methods need lignin-free cellulose as starting material. This makes it cheaper and therefore it was used on a larger scale than the other methods.

Contamination of the waste water by carbon disulfide, lignin and the xanthates made this process detrimental to the environment. Rayon was only bent as a filament fiber until the 1930s when it was learned that broken waste rayon could be used in staple fiber.

The physical properties of rayon were unchanged until the development of high-tenacity rayon in the 1940s. Further research and development led to the creation of high-wet-modulus rayon (HWM rayon) in the 1950s.. Research in the UK was centred on the government-funded British Rayon Research Association.

Major fiber properties

Rayon is a very versatile fiber and has the same comfort properties as natural fibers. It can imitate the feel and texture of silk, wool, cotton and linen. The fibers are easily dyed in a wide range of colors. Rayon fabrics are soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not insulate body heat, making them ideal for use in hot and humid climates. The highest quality Hawaiian shirts bent between the 1930s and the 1950s that are most sought after by collectors are all made of rayon.

The durability and appearance maintenance of regular rayon are low, especially when wet; also, rayon has the lowest elastic recovery of any fiber. But, HWM rayon is much stronger and exhibits higher durability and appearance maintenance. Recommended care for regular rayon is dry-cleaning only. HWM rayon can be machine washed.

Physical structure

Regular rayon has lengthwise lines called striations and its cross-section is an indented circular shape. The cross-sections of HWM and cupra rayon are rounder. Filament rayon yarns vary from 80 to 980 filaments per yarn and vary in size from 40 to 5000 denier. Staple fibers range from 1.5 to 15 denier and are mechanically or chemically crimped. Rayon fibers are naturally very bright, but the addendum of delustering pigments cuts down on this natural brightness.

Production method

Regular rayon (or viscose) is the most widely bent form of rayon. This method of rayon production has been utilized since the early 1900s and it has the ability to produce either filament or staple fibers. The process is as follows:

1.Cellulose: Production starts with processed cellulose
2.Immersion: The cellulose is dissolved in caustic soda: (C6H10O5)n + nNaOH ? (C6H9O4ONa)n + nH2O
3.Critical: The solution is then pressed between rollers to remove excess liquid
4.White Crumb: The pressed sheets are crumbled or shredded to produce what is renowned as "white crumb"
5.Aging: The "white crumb" aged through exposure to oxygen
6.Xanthation: The aged "white crumb" is mixed with carbon disulfide in a process renowned as Xanthation, the aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are allowed to react with carbon disulfide under controlled warmth (20 to 30°C) to form cellulose xanthate: (C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 ? (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n
7.Yellow Crumb: Xanthation changes the chemical makeup of the cellulose mixture and the resulting product is now called "yellow crumb"
8.Viscose: The "yellow crumb" is dissolved in a caustic solution to form viscose
9.Ripening: The viscose is set to stand for a period of time, allowing it to grow: (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + nH2O ? (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + nNaOH
10.Filtering: After ripening, the viscose is filtered to remove any undissolved particles
11.Degassing: Any bubbles of air are pressed from the viscose in a degassing process
12.Extruding: The viscose solution is extruded through a spinneret, which resembles a shower head with many small holes
13.Acid Bath: As the viscose exits the spinneret, it lands in a bath of sulfuric acid, resulting in the formation of rayon filaments: (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + ½nH2SO4 ? (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + ½nNa2SO4
14.Drawing: The rayon filaments are stretched, renowned as drawing, to straighten out the fibers
15.Washing: The fibers are then washed to remove any residual chemicals
16.Cutting: If filament fibers are desired the process ends here. The filaments are cut down when producing staple fibers
High wet modulus rayon (HWM) is a modified version of viscose that has a greater strength when wet. It also has the ability to be mercerized like cotton. HWM rayons are also renowned as "polynosic" or can be identified by the trade name Modal.
High-tenacity rayon is another modified version of viscose that has nearly twice the strength of HWM. This type of rayon is typically used for industrial purposes such as tire cord.

Cupramonium rayon has properties similar to viscose but during production, the cellulose is combined with copper and ammonia (Schweizer’s reagent). Due to the environmental things of this production method, cupramonium rayon is no longer bent in the United States.

Disposal and biodegradability

The biodegradability of fibers in soil burial and sewage sludge was evaluated by Korean researchers who found that biodegradability decreased in the following order: rayon, cotton, acetate (meaning rayon decays more readily than cotton). The ability of individual rayon-based fabrics to repel water was negatively correlated with their speed of degradation (meaning the greater the water-repelling ability of the fibre, the slower it will decompose).

Producers

Trade names are used within the rayon industry to determine the type of rayon used.

Look up Bemberg in Wiktionary, the free glossary.

Bemberg, for example, is a trade name for cupramonium rayon developed by J.P. Bemberg that is now only bent in Italy due to United States Environmental Protection Agency regulations in the US.

Modal and Tencel are widely used forms of rayon bent by Lenzing Fibers Corp. which is based in northern Austria.

Galaxy, Danufil, and Viloft are rayon brands bent by Kelheim Fibres, a German manufacturer.

Acordis is a major manufacturer of cellulose based fibers and yarns. Production facilities can be found throughout Europe, the U.S. and Brazil.

Visil rayon is a flame retardant form of viscose which has silica embedded in the fiber during manufacturing.

North American Rayon Corp of Tennessee bent viscose rayon until its closure in the year 2000.

Grasim of India is the largest producer of rayon in the world (claiming 24% market share). It has plants in Nagda, Kharach and Harihar – all in India.

See also For a description of the production method at a factory in Germany in World War II, see pages 152-155 of

Agnès Humbert, (tr. Barbara Mellor) Résistance: Memoirs of Occupied France, London, Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2008 ISBN 9780747595977 (American title: Resistance: A Frenchwoman’s Journal of the War, Bloomsbury, USA, 2008)

Nylon

Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers renowned broadly as polyamides, first bent on February 28, 1935, by Wallace Carothers at DuPont’s research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station. Nylon is one of the most commonly used polymers

Nylon is a thermoplastic silky material, first used commercially in a nylon-bristled toothbrush (1938), followed more famously by women’s stockings ("nylons"; 1940). It is made of repeating units associated by amide bonds and is frequently referred to as polyamide (PA). Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic polymer. There are two common methods of making nylon for fiber applications. In one approach, molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with molecules containing amine (NH2) groups on each end. The resulting nylon is named on the basis of the number of carbon atoms separating the two acid groups and the two amines. These are formed into monomers of intermediate molecular weight, which are then reacted to form long polymer chains.

Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, and was used in many types of vehicle tires.

Nylon fibres are used in many applications, including fabrics, bridal veils, carpets, musical strings, and rope.

Solid nylon is used for mechanical parts such as machine screws, gears and other low- to medium-stress components previously cast in metal. Engineering-grade nylon is processed by extrusion, casting, and injection molding. Solid nylon is used in hair combs. Type 6,6 Nylon 101 is the most common commercial grade of nylon, and Nylon 6 is the most common commercial grade of molded nylon. Nylon is available in glass-filled variants which increase structural and impact strength and inflexibility, and molybdenum sulfide-filled variants which increase lubricity.

Aramids are another type of polyamide with quite different chain structures which include aromatic groups in the main chain. Such polymers make brilliant ballistic fibres.

Chemistry

Nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting copy parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, so that amides are formed at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers. Chemical elements included are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The numerical suffix specifies the numbers of carbons donated by the monomers; the diamine first and the diacid following. The most common variant is nylon 6-6 which refers to the fact that the diamine (hexamethylene diamine, IUPAC name: 1,6-diaminohexane) and the diacid (adipic acid, IUPAC name: hexane-1,6-dicarboxylic acid) each donate 6 carbons to the polymer chain. As with other regular copolymers like polyesters and polyurethanes, the "repeating unit" consists of one of each monomer, so that they alternate in the chain. Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive group on both ends, the direction of the amide bond reverses between each monomer, unlike natural polyamide proteins which have overall directionality: C terminal ? N terminal. In the laboratory, nylon 6-6 can also be made using adipoyl chloride instead of adipic.

It is hard to get the proportions exactly right, and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons (u). To overcome this conundrum, a crystalline, solid "nylon salt" can be formed at room warmth, using an exact 1:1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other. Heated to 285 °C (545 °F), the salt reacts to form nylon polymer. Above 20,000 daltons, it is impossible to spin the chains into yarn, so to combat this, some acetic acid is added to react with a free amine end group during polymer elongation to limit the molecular weight. In practice, and especially for 6,6, the monomers are often combined in a water solution. The water used to make the solution is evaporated under controlled conditions, and the increasing concentration of "salt" is polymerized to the final molecular weight.

DuPont patented[1] nylon 6,6, so in order to compete, other companies (particularly the German BASF) developed the homopolymer nylon 6, or polycaprolactam — not a condensation polymer, but formed by a ring-opening polymerization (alternatively made by polymerizing aminocaproic acid). The peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side life incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone. In this case, all amide bonds lie in the same direction, but the properties of nylon 6 are sometimes indistinguishable from those of nylon 6,6 — except for melt warmth and some fiber properties in products like carpets and textiles. There is also nylon 9.

The 428 °F (220 °C) melting point of nylon 6 is lower than the 509 °F (265 °C) melting point of nylon 6,6.

Nylon 5,10, made from pentamethylene diamine and sebacic acid, was studied by Carothers even before nylon 6,6 and has superior properties, but is more expensive to make. In keeping with this naming convention, "nylon 6,12" (N-6,12) or "PA-6,12" is a copolymer of a 6C diamine and a 12C diacid. Similarly for N-5,10 N-6,11; N-10,12, etc. Other nylons include copolymerized dicarboxylic acid/diamine products that are not based upon the monomers listed above. For example, some aromatic nylons are polymerized with the addendum of diacids like terephthalic acid (? Kevlar Twaron) or isophthalic acid (? Nomex), more commonly associated with polyesters. There are copolymers of N-6,6/N6; copolymers of N-6,6/N-6/N-12; and others. Because of the way polyamides are formed, nylon would seem to be limited to unbranched, straight chains. But "star" branched nylon can be bent by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or more amino groups.

Concepts of nylon production

The first approach: combining molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with two chemicals that contain amine (NH2) groups on each end. This process makes nylon 6,6, made of hexamethylene diamine with six carbon atoms and adipic acid.

The following approach: a compound has an acid at one end and an amine at the other and is polymerized to form a chain with repeating units of (-NH-[CH2]n-CO-)x. In other words, nylon 6 is made from a single six-carbon substance called caprolactam. In this equation, if n=5, then nylon 6 is the assigned name (may also be referred to as polymer).

The characteristic features of nylon 6,6 include:

Pleats and creases can be heat-set at higher temperatures
More compact molecular structure
Better weathering properties; better sunlight resistance
Softer "Hand"
Higher melting point (256 °C / 492.8 °F)
Superior colorfastness
Brilliant abrasion resistance
On the other hand, nylon 6 is simple to dye, more readily fades; it has a higher impact resistance, a more rapid moisture absorption, greater elasticity and elastic recovery.

Characteristics

Variation of sheen: nylon has the ability to be very lustrous, semilustrous or dull.
Durability: its high tenacity fibers are used for seatbelts, tire cords, ballistic cloth and other uses.
High elongation
Brilliant abrasion resistance
Highly resilient (nylon fabrics are heat-set)
Paved the way for simple-care outfits
High resistance to insects, fungi, animals, as well as molds, mildew, rot and many chemicals
Used in carpets and nylon stockings
Melts instead of burning
Used in many military applications
Excellent specific strength
Transparent under infrared light (-12dB)

Bulk properties

Above their melting temperatures, Tm, thermoplastics like nylon are amorphous solids or viscous fluids in which the chains approximate random coils. Below Tm, amorphous regions alternate with regions which are lamellar crystals. The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and inflexibility. The planar amide (-CO-NH-) groups are very polar, so nylon forms multiple hydrogen bonds among adjacent strands. Because the nylon backbone is so regular and symmetrical, especially if all the amide bonds are in the trans configuration, nylons often have high crystallinity and make brilliant fibers. The quantity of crystallinity depends on the details of formation, as well as on the kind of nylon. Apparently it can never be quenched from a melt as a completely amorphous solid.

Nylon 6,6 can have multiple parallel strands aligned with their neighboring peptide bonds at coordinated separations of exactly 6 and 4 carbons for considerable lengths, so the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens can line up to form interchain hydrogen bonds repeatedly, without interruption. Nylon 5,10 can have coordinated runs of 5 and 8 carbons. Thus parallel (but not antiparallel) strands can participate in total, constant, multi-chain ?-pleated sheets, a strong and tough supermolecular structure similar to that found in natural silk fibroin and the ?-keratins in feathers. (Proteins have only an amino acid ?-carbon separating sequential -CO-NH- groups.) Nylon 6 will form uninterrupted H-bonded sheets with mixed directionalities, but the ?-sheet wrinkling is somewhat different. The three-dimensional disposition of each alkane hydrocarbon chain depends on rotations about the 109.47° tetrahedral bonds of singly-bonded carbon atoms.

When extruded into fibers through pores in an industrial spinneret, the individual polymer chains tend to align because of viscous flow. If subjected to cold drawing afterwards, the fibers align further, increasing their crystallinity, and the material buys additional tensile strength. In practice, nylon fibers are most often drawn using heated rolls at high speeds.

Block nylon tends to be less crystalline, except near the surfaces due to shearing stresses during formation. Nylon is clear and colorless, or milky, but is easily dyed. Multistranded nylon cord and rope is slippery and tends to unravel. The ends can be melted and fused with a heat fund such as a flame or electrode to preclude this.

When dry, polyamide is a excellent electrical insulator. But, polyamide is hygroscopic. The absorption of water will change some of the material’s properties such as its electrical resistance. Nylon is less absorbent than wool or cotton.

Historical uses

Bill Pittendreigh, DuPont, and other individuals and corporations worked conscientiously during the first few months of World War II to find a way to replace Asian silk and hemp with nylon in parachutes. It was also used to make tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies. It was even used in the production of a high-grade paper for U.S. currency. At the outset of the war, cotton accounted for more than 80% of all fibers used and manufactured, and wool fibers accounted for the remaining 20%. By August 1945, manufactured fibers had taken a market share of 25% and cotton had dropped.

Some of the terpolymers based upon nylon are used every day in packaging. Nylon has been used for meat wrappings and sausage sheaths.

Use in composites

Nylon can be used as the matrix material in composite materials, with reinforcing fibres like glass or carbon fiber; such a composite has a higher density than pure nylon. Such thermoplastic composites (25% glass fibre) are frequently used in car components next to the engine, such as intake manifolds, where the excellent heat resistance of such materials makes them feasible competitors to metals.

Hydrolysis and degradation

All nylons are susceptible to hydrolysis, especially by strong acids, a reaction essentially the reverse of the synthetic reaction shown above. The molecular weight of nylon products so attacked drops quick, and cracks form quickly at the affected zones. Lower members of the nylons (such as nylon 6) are affected more than higher members such as nylon 12. This earnings that nylon parts cannot be used in friend with sulfuric acid for example, such as the electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries. When life molded, nylon must be dried to preclude hydrolysis in the molding machine barrel since water at high temperatures can also degrade the polymer. The reaction is of the type:

Incineration and recycling

Various nylons break down in fire and form hazardous smoke, and toxic fumes or ash, typically containing hydrogen cyanide. Incinerating nylons to restore your health the high energy used to make them is usually expensive, so most nylons reach the garbage dumps, decaying very slowly. Some recycling is done on nylon, usually making pellets for reuse in the industry, but this is done at a much lower scale

Etymology

In 1940, John W. Eckelberry of DuPont stated that the letters "nyl" were arbitrary and the "on" was copied from the suffixes of other fibers such as cotton and rayon. A later publication by DuPont clarified that the name was originally intended to be "No-Run" ("run" meaning "unravel"), but was modified to avoid making such an unjustified claim and to make the word sound better. An apocryphal tale is that Nylon is a conflation of "New York" and "London". Equally spurious is the backronym for "Now You’ve Lost, Ancient Nippon" referring to the supposed loss of demand for Japanese silk.

Polyester

Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are many polyesters, the term "polyester" as a specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally-occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polycarbonate and polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not.

Depending on the chemical structure polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset, but the most common polyesters are thermoplastics.

Fabrics woven from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets and upholstered furniture. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in tyre reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, covered fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding.

While synthetic clothing in general is perceived by many as having a less-natural feel compared to fabrics woven from natural fibres (such as cotton and wool), polyester fabrics can provide specific advantages over natural fabrics, such as improved wrinkle resistance, durability and high affect maintenance. As a result, polyester fibres are sometimes spun together with natural fibres to produce a cloth with blended properties. Synthetic fibres also can make materials with superior water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibres.

Polyesters are also used to make "plastic" bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes.

Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially-used liquid crystal polymers. They are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are also vital in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines.

Polyesters are widely used as a end on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Burns Guitars, Rolls Royce and Sunseeker are a few companies that use polyesters to end their products. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable end.

Types

Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat. While combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibres have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and minimal shrinkage in comparison with other industrial fibres.

Unsaturated polyesters (UPR) are thermosetting resins. They are used as casting materials, fiberglass laminating resins and non-metallic auto-body fillers. Fibreglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as body parts of cars.

Increasing the aromatic parts of polyesters increases their glass transition warmth, melting warmth, thermal stability, chemical stability…

Polyesters can also be telechelic oligomers like the polycaprolactone diol (PCL) and the polyethylene adipate diol (PEA). They are then used as prepolymers.

Industry

Basics

Polyester is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials bent, it ranges third after polyethylene (33.5%) and polypropylene (19.5%).

The main raw materials are described as follows:

Purified terephthalic acid – PTA – CAS-No.: 100-21-0
Synonym: 1,4 benzenedicarboxylic acid,
Sum formula; C6H4(COOH)2 , mol weight: 166.13
Dimethylterephthalate – DMT – CAS-No: 120-61-6
Synonym: 1,4 benzenedicarboxylic acid dimethyl ester
Sum formula C6H4(COOCH3)2 , mol weight: 194.19
Mono Ethylene Glycol – MEG – CAS No.: 107-21-1
Synonym: 1,2 ethanediol
Sum formula: C2H6O2 , mol weight: 62,07
To make a polymer of high molecular weight a catalyst is needed. The most common catalyst is antimony trioxide (or antimony tri acetate):

Antimony trioxide – ATO – CAS-No.: 1309-64-4 Molecular weight: 291.51 Sum formula: Sb2O3

In 2008, about 10,000 tonnes Sb2O3 were used to produce around 49 million tonnes polyethylene terephthalate.

Polyester is described as follows:

Polyethylene Terephthalate CAS-No.: 25038-59-9 Synonym/abbreviations: polyester, PET, PES Sum Formula: H-[C10H8O4]-n=60–120 OH, molelcular unit weight: 192.17

There are several reasons for the importance of Polyester:

The relatively simple accessible raw materials PTA or DMT and MEG
The very well understood and described simple chemical process of polyester synthesis
The low toxicity level of all raw materials and side products during polyester production and processing
The likelihood to produce PET in a clogged loop at low emissions to the environment
The outstanding mechanical and chemical properties of polyester
The recyclability
The wide diversity of intermediate and final products made of polyester.
In table 1 the estimated world polyester production is shown. Main applications are material polyester, bottle polyester resin, film polyester mainly for packaging and specialty polyesters for engineering plastics. According to this table, the world’s total polyester production might exceed 50 million tons per annum before the year 2010.

Table 1: World polyester production

Market size per year Product type 2002 [Million tonnes/year] 2008 [Million tonnes/year]
Material-PET 20 39
Resin, bottle/A-PET 9 16
Film-PET 1.2 1.5
Special polyester 1 2.5
Total 31.2 49

Raw material producerThe raw materials PTA, DMT, and MEG are mainly bent by large chemical companies which are sometimes integrated down to the crude oil refinery where p-Xylene is the base material to produce PTA and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the base material to produce MEG. Large PTA producers are for instance BP, Dependence, Sinopec, SK-Chemicals, Mitsui, and Eastman Chemicals. MEG production is in the hand of about 10 global players which are headed by MEGlobal a JV of DOW and PIC Kuweit followed by Sabic.

Polyester processingAfter the first the boards of polymer production in the melt phase, the product stream divides into two different application areas which are mainly material applications and packaging applications. In figure 2 the main applications of material and packaging polyester are listed.

Table 2: Material and packaging polyester application list

Polyester-based polymer (melt or pellet) Material Packaging
Staple fiber (PSF) Bottles for CSD, Water, Beer, Juice, Detergents
Filaments POY, DTY, FDY A-PET Film
Technical yarn and tire cord Thermoforming
Non-woven and spunbond BO-PET Biaxial oriented Film
Mono-filament Strapping

Abbreviations: PSF = Polyester Staple Fiber; POY = Partially Oriented Yarn; DTY = Draw Textured Yarn; FDY = Fully Drawn Yarn; CSD = Carbonated Soft Drink; A-PET = Amorphous Polyester Film; BO-PET = Biaxial Oriented Polyester Film;

A comparable small market segment (much less than 1 million tonnes/year) of polyester is used to produce engineering plastics and masterbatch.

In order to produce the polyester melt with a high efficiency, high-output processing steps like staple fiber (50–300 tonnes/day per spinning line) or POY /FDY (up to 600 tonnes/day split into about 10 spinning apparatus) are meanwhile more and more horizontal, integrated, direct processes. This earnings the polymer melt is directly converted into the material fibers or filaments without the common step of pelletizing. We are talking about full horizontal integration when polyester is bent at one site starting from crude oil or distillation products in the chain oil ? benzene ? PX ? PTA ? PET melt ? fiber/filament or bottle-grade resin. Such integrated processes are meanwhile established in more or less interrupted processes at one production site. Eastman Chemicals introduced at first the thought to close the chain from PX to PET resin with their so-called INTEGREX process. The capacity of such horizontal, integrated productions sites is >1000 tonnes/day and can easily reach 2500 tonnes/day.

Besides the above mentioned large processing units to produce staple fiber or yarns, there are ten thousands of small and very small processing plants, so that one can estimate that polyester is processed and recycled in more than 10 000 plants around the globe. This is without counting all the companies involved in the give industry, beginning with engineering and processing apparatus and ending with special additives, stabilizers and colors. This is a oversize industry complex and it is still growing by 4–8% per annum, depending on the world region. Useful information about the polyester industry can be found under where a “Who is Producing What in the Polyester Industry” is gradually life developed.

Polyester (1953)
Carbon fiber (1968)
Specialty synthetic fibers include:

Vinyon (1939)
Saran (1941)
Spandex (1959)
Vinalon (1939)
Aramids (1961) – renowned as Nomex, Kevlar and Twaron
Modal (1960′s)
Dyneema/Spectra (1979)
PBI (Polybenzimidazole fiber) (1983)
Sulfar (1983)
Lyocell (1992)
PLA (2002)
M-5 (PIPD fiber)
Orlon
Zylon (PBO fiber)
Vectran (TLCP fiber) made from Vectra LCP polymer
Derclon used in manufacture of rugs

Other synthetic materials used in fibers include:

Acrylonitrile rubber (1930)
Modern fibers that are made from older artificial materials include:

Glass Fiber (1938) is used for:
industrial, automotive, and home insulation (Glass wool)
reinforcement of composite materials (Glass-reinforced plastic, Glass fiber reinforced concrete)
specialty papers in battery separators and filtration
Metallic fiber (1946) is used for:
adding metallic properties to clothing for the purpose of fashion (usually made with composite plastic and metal foils)
elimination and prevention of static charge build-up
conducting electricity to transmit information
conduction of heat
In the horticulture industry synthetics are often used in soils to help the plants grow better. Examples are:

expanded polystyrene flakes
urea-formaldehyde foam resin
polyurethane foam
phenolic resin foam
Industry structureDuring the last quarter of 20th century, Asian share of global output of synthetic fibers doubled to 65 per cent.

Synthesis

Synthesis of polyesters is generally achieved by a polycondensation reaction. See "condensation reactions in polymer chemistry". The general equation for the reaction of a diol with a diacid is :

(n+1) R(OH)2 + n R´(COOH)2 ? HO[ROOCR´COO]nROH + 2n H2O
[edit] Azeotrope esterificationIn this classical method, an alcohol and a carboxylic acid react to form a carboxylic ester. To assemble a polymer, the water formed by the reaction must be continually removed by azeotrope distillation.

Acylation (HCl method)The acid starts as an acid chloride, and thus the polycondensation proceeds with emission of hydrochloric acid (HCl) instead of water. This method can be carried out in solution or as an enamel.

Silyl method

In this variant of the HCl method, the carboxylic acid chloride is converted with the trimethyl silyl ether of the alcohol component and production of trimethyl silyl chloride is obtained
Acetate method (esterification)

Silyl acetate method

Ring-opening polymerization

Aliphatic polyesters can be assembled from lactones under very mild conditions, catalyzed anionically, cationically or metallorganically.

Cross-linking

Unsaturated polyesters are thermosetting resins. They are generally copolymers prepared by polymerizing one or more diol with saturated and unsaturated dicarboxylic acids (maleic acid, fumaric acid…) or their anhydrides. The double bond of unsaturated polyesters reacts with a vinyl monomer mainly the styrene, resulting in a 3-D cross-associated structure. This structure acts as a thermoset. The cross-linking is initiated through an exothermic reaction involving an organic peroxide, such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide.

Health things

A study published in 1993 found that polyester underwear reduced sperm count and sperm motility in male dogs. Similar studies have shown similar consequences in humans and rats. The cause is not renowned but is believed to be due to an electrostatic field made by the fabric.

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Tattle Tales Magazine — Fall Edition 1937 — Mistaken Identity …..item 1..But $16 muffins, $5 sodas, and $8 cups of coffee are still pretty pricey for a government agency (September 20, 2011) …

Tattle Tales Magazine — Fall Edition 1937 — Mistaken Identity …..item 1..But muffins, sodas, and cups of coffee are but pretty pricey for a government agency (September 20, 2011) …
per page cost

Image by marsmet523
A doctor and his wife were having a huge argument at breakfast. "You aren’t so excellent in bed neither!", he shouted and stormed off to work. By mid morning, he chose he’d better make amends and called home. "What took you so long to answer?" "I was in bed." "What were you doing in bed this late?" "Being paid a following attitude." LOL, yeap that sounds about right to me !!!………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….LADIES: FIVE SECRETS TO A PERFECT RELATIONSHIP: 1) Its vital to have a man who helps at home, cooks, cleans & has a job 2) Its vital to have a man who can make you laugh 3) Its vital to have a man you can trust & wants only you 4) Its vital to have a man who is excellent in bed & enjoys life with you 5) Its absolutely essential that these four men dont know each other…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….item 1)…..website….The Atlantic…Politics… for a Muffin?! A Justice Department BoondoggleSEP 20 2011, 4:17 PM ETYes, hotel food is overpriced. But muffins, sodas, and cups of coffee are still pretty pricey for a government agency — or anyone………………………………………..img code photo…….sweets !!!!!cdn.theatlantic.com/static/mt/assets/andrew_cohen/muffins…Flickr/CulinaryHistoriansOfCanada………………………………………..www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2011/09/-16-for-a-mu…Well, here is something you don’t see every day.The Justice Department’s Office of the Inspector General Tuesday released a crash blandly titled "Audit of Department of Justice Conference Plotting and Food and Beverage Costs." The menu may be tough to digest — it’s 148 pages, after all — but political gourmands of all persuasions are likely to find its main entrees simply attractive, especially since they are life presented for public consumption at a time when official Washington is supposed to be tightening its belt and pushing itself away from the table.Domestic inspectors — from the same office which once upon a time investigated the Justice Department’s role in the 2006 U.S. Attorney scandal — have concluded that mid-level DOJ officials consistently failed in 2008 and 2009 to follow federal guidelines designed to keep food and beverage costs at reasonable rates for government-sponsored conferences. They were taken advantage of, in other words, by private contractors (See? It doesn’t just happen with military contracts). Here from the crash is a sample serving of food of the OIG’s findings:… DOJ spent about 0,000 (11 percent of costs) on food and beverages at the 10 conferences. All the conferences occurred at major hotels that applied benefit fees – usually around 20 percent – to the cost of already expensive menu items. Our assessment of food and beverage charges revealed that some DOJ components did not minimize conference costs as required by federal and DOJ guidelines. For example, one conference served muffins while another served Beef Wellington hors d’oeuvres that cost .32 per serving. Coffee and tea at the events cost between .62 and .03 an ounce. At the .03 per-ounce price, a 8-ounce cup of coffee would have cost .24.It’s a bipartisan mess. Inspectors looked specifically at 10 DOJ conferences in 2008-2009, six during the last year of the Bush Administration, when the Justice Department was led by Michael Mukasey, the former judge selected to replace the luckless Alberto Gonzales as attorney general. They also looked at four conferences during the first year of the Obama Administration, when the Department was led, as it is today, by Attorney General Eric Holder. Alas, it will be Holder who will have to answer the inevitable questions and deflect the inevitable comparisons. "Let them eat cake? How about letting them eat a muffin?"At places all over the country and the world, the conferences took place after the Justice Department had been warned by the OIG in 2007 that there was too small oversight over food and beverage costs. Investigators determined, for example, that the DOJ "spent 0,000 (14 percent of costs) to hire training and technical help providers as external event planners for 5 of the 10 conferences reviewed. This was done without demonstrating that these firms offered the most cost effective logistical event plotting services. Further, these event planners did not accurately track and crash conference expenditures."Here’s another taste of what’s in the new OIG crash:… conference attendees received Cracker Jacks, popcorn, and candy bars at a single break that cost per person, including benefit charges and indirect costs… [There was also] a "deluxe" ice cream assortment that cost per person including benefit charges and indirect costs… When one event planner applied a sanctioned 15-percent indirect cost rate to the price of food and beverages at a conference, the cost of one soda increased from .84 to .57.Hotel food is notoriously expensive. But talk about your stimulus package! All this time "event plotting" has been the "winning" formula to get America effective over again. Someone, quick, tell Anthony "A.J" Soprano! Unsurprisingly, the crash concludes that the event planners and others responsible for charging these prices ("components," they are cryptically called in the crash) were "unable to provide adequate justifications for the expensive food and beverages." The OIG concedes that some of the conferences were aforethought before new cost directives were place into place in April 2008. But investigators also say theyremain concerned that not all components will take into account benefit fees, taxes, and indirect costing when deciding what food and beverages — if any — should be served at a DOJ conference. In our attitude, the lack of documentation we found regarding the necessity of costly food and beverage items indicated that not all sponsors were sincerely questioning the need for expensive meals and refreshments at their events.The Justice Department will say this is ancient news and that it has done much more since 2009 to reduce these costs. And Congressional Republicans and the GOP presidential candidates will likely use the describe to take pot shots at Eric Holder and President Barack Obama for wasteful government spending. Perhaps the only appetizing "component" of this meal is that copies of Michael Kinsley’s under-appreciated book "Curse of the Giant Muffins and Other Washington Maladies" now likely will soar. In fact, I hear the Justice Department just bought a few copies at 5 each………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Print run & costs for McSweeney’s San Francisco Panorama newspaper

Photograph run & costs for McSweeney’s San Francisco Panorama newspaper
print costs per page

Image by Steve Rhodes
The Panorama includes a simple information pamphlet about the paper.

One section gives a listing of the costs of producing it

www.flickr.com/photos/ari/4170080893/

20,000 copies were in black and white (I imagine they could have sold more).

Total printing cost per a unit was .57 (the info pamphlet cost 6.5 cents, the magazine .78, 120 page broadsheet .95, Book review (basically another magazine) 82 cents, Chris Ware poster 28 cents, sports poster 7.5 cents.

"Note: unit costs drop dramatically with increases in volume."

They had around ,00 in ad revenue with one part-time person selling ads for five months. McSweeney’s had never had ads before. There were 48 advertisers, 20 local to the bay area

Editorial costs were a small over ,000

Unit costs with editorial costs factored in .98

So they were losing money selling it for on the day of publication in San Francisco.

This goes into more detail on the budget

www.flickr.com/photos/ari/4170841382/

A typical issue of McSweeney’s has ,500 in illustration expenses. The Panorama has ,000 (not including comics).

Most issues of McSweeney’s contributor budgets aren’t more than ,000. The Panorama was closer to ,000.

In a paragraph called Some rough math:

They bent the paper with 5,000 in direct capital which they recouped a large part of the day it went on sale (today).

They outline a way someone could produce a daily paper and sell it for "you would be able to make a go of it. That is, of course, provided that your overhead remains low, and that you aren’t owned by multinational that expects return on investment of over 12 percent of so. But within a rational expectation of profit, one can still make a newspaper work. Right?"

Me: Really most newspaper were making over 20 percent profit and those multinational companies pushed them to cut expenses long before the internet and the recession, so they could make even more money.

If they instead had invested those immense profits into doing better journalism instead of continuing to cut, the newspaper industry might be in better shape to survive this time of transition.

A section called Some numbers (it includes more numbers than I list below)

www.flickr.com/photos/ari/4170081083/

350,000 words (approx)

218 contributors

Over 1,500 copies to local bookstores

bayarea.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/09/the-birth-of-panoram…

The Bay Bridge investigation is online

sfpublicpress.org/news/special-reports/bay-bridge

Background

blog.spot.us/2009/12/08/case-study-in-collaboration-spot-…

www.mcsweeneys.net/SFPanoramaPR.html

These places may have it

mcsweeneys.net/buypanorama.html

It can also be ordered online (though act now – only 20,000 were in black and white)

store.mcsweeneys.net/index.cfm/fuseaction/register.detail/… (you can also subscribe here and choose it to be your first issue)

www.sfgate.com/panorama/

Some coverage

www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/condition.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/11/24/MNP1…

www.kqed.org/epArchive/R912081000

www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/index.jsp?JSESSIONID=Prg…

www.mediabistro.com/baynewser/bay_area_newspapers/five_qu…

bayarea.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/07/dave-eggers-and-the-…

www.sfbg.com/blogs/politics/2009/12/san_francisco_panoram…

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Per Page

Nathan Myhrvold

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